8% (10.9–26.7%) and 4.6% (0.0–15.4%), respectively. Linkage to HIV care in recruited testers with CD4 counts ≤350 cells/μL was 78.8%. Compared with routine voluntary HCT, selection and invitation in combination with incentives doubled the yield of newly diagnosed HIV infections and increased Sirolimus the yield almost fourfold of individuals needing antiretroviral therapy. This may be an important strategy to increase community-based HIV diagnosis and access to care. Uptake of HIV counselling and testing (HCT) is still

<50% among adults in sub-Saharan Africa, despite a considerable expansion of HCT services over the past decade [1]. HCT scale-up needs to be met with an equal growth in demand for universal access to be achieved. Demand for HCT is driven by distance, costs, knowledge of available services and health-seeking behaviour, which in turn is influenced by income, education and social and cultural characteristics [2,3]. Work-place, mobile and home-based HCT services overcome structural barriers by offering testing in near distance [4–7]. Studies from sub-Saharan Africa have shown that most people do know where to test for HIV [2,8,9]. The

major challenge today is how to enhance health-seeking behaviour and extend HCT coverage to population groups with limited access to existing services. The success of home-based HCT services might rely on the combination of convenience (bringing the health services to people’s doorstep) and personal invitation [5,8,10]. Personal invitation has also been successful Alisertib solubility dmso in promoting HCT among couples [11,12]. Conditional cash transfer programmes in South America increased health service use and preventive behaviours mainly in the context of child and maternal health [13]. A study

from Malawi found that monetary incentives increased the uptake of HIV tests by 27% [14]. More widespread implementation of incentivized testing ifoxetine will need careful consideration of operational, technical and ethical issues. Furthermore, the effect of incentives on health-seeking behaviour and linkage to HIV care following a positive HIV test result will need to be assessed. We compared the yields of cases of newly diagnosed HIV infection and low CD4 counts (≤200 cells/μL) in individuals recruited and tested as part of a community-based HIV seroprevalence survey and individuals tested on their own initiative at a mobile HCT service in a peri-urban community in Cape Town, South Africa. We also assessed the proportion of newly diagnosed HIV-infected individuals tested following active recruitment who subsequently linked to HIV care. The study was based in a peri-urban township in Cape Town, South Africa, with 17 000 residents and an adult HIV prevalence of 23% measured in the latest population-based seroprevalence survey in 2010.

In each of these large series, one patient died soon after rituximab administration as a result of overwhelming disease, and the main adverse event seen in these patients was reactivation of KS, which is intriguing and may have been attributable to the rapid B-cell depletion that is observed during rituximab therapy, or an immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome to hitherto latent antigens [47]. Bower et al. [48] demonstrated after successful rituximab therapy, a significant reduction from baseline of the CD19 B-cell count, and reductions in the levels of the inflammatory cytokines

IL-5, IL-6 and IL-10. In the largest study to date [49], Bower et al. selleck identified 61 HIV-positive patients with histologically confirmed MCD (median follow-up, 4.2 years). Since 2003, 49 patients with newly diagnosed PD-1 inhibitor MCD have been treated with rituximab with (n = 14) or without (n = 35)

etoposide. With rituximab-based treatment, the overall survival was 94% (95% CI: 87–100%) at 2 years and was 90% (95% CI: 81–100%) at 5 years compared with 42% (95% CI: 14–70%) and 33% (95% CI: 6–60%) in 12 patients treated before introduction of rituximab (log-rank p < 0.001). Four of 49 rituximab-treated patients have died; three died as a result of MCD within 10 days of diagnosis, and one died as a result of lymphoma in remission of MCD. Eight of 46 patients who achieved clinical remission suffered symptomatic, histologically confirmed MCD relapse. The median time to relapse was 2 years, and all have been successfully re-treated and are alive in remission. The 2- and 5-year progression-free survival rates for all 49 patients treated with rituximab-based therapy were 85% (95% CI: 74–95%) and 61% (95% CI: 40–82%), respectively. Gerard et al. [50] compared the incidence of NHL between patients who had received rituximab or not over 4.2 years of follow-up. In the group that did not receive rituximab (n = 65), 17 patients developed patient developed NHL (incidence, 4.2 of 1000 person-years). Based on the propensity

score-matching method, a significant decrease in the incidence of NHL was observed in patients who had been treated with rituximab (hazard ratio 0.09, 95% CI: 0.01–0.70). Ten Kaposi sarcoma (KS) exacerbations and one newly diagnosed KS Phenylethanolamine N-methyltransferase were observed in nine patients after rituximab therapy. Rituximab was associated with an 11-fold lower risk of developing lymphoma. KS exacerbation was the most challenging adverse event after rituximab therapy. Data from Stebbing et al. [30] showing that rising levels of HHV8 predicted relapses, suggested that combination therapy including rituximab should be considered. For immunocompetent patients the chemotherapy regimens for MCD are based on lymphoma schedules such as CHOP (cyclophosphamide, doxorubicin, vincristine and prednisolone) [51].

S.K, Kyoto, Japan). Metformin order Four slices were obtained from one brain, one each including the SCN, olfactory bulb (OB), CPU/parietal cortex (PC) and substantia nigra (SN). These areas were dissected out in ice-cold Hanks’ balanced salt solution with a surgical knife under a stereoscopic microscope as described elsewhere (Natsubori et al.,

2013a). A dissected tissue was placed on a membrane (Millicell-CM, Millipore, MA, USA; pore size 0.4 μm) in a 35-mm Petri dish, and cultured in air at 37 °C with 1300 μL of DMEM (Invitrogen, CA, USA) supplemented with: HEPES, 10 μm; NaHCO3, 2.7 mm; kanamycin (Gibco, NY, USA), 20 mg/L; apo-transferrin (Sigma, St. Louis, USA), 100 μg/mL; insulin (Sigma), 5 μg/mL; putrescine (Sigma), 100 μm; progesterone (Sigma), 20 nm; sodium selenite (Gibco), 30 nm; and D-Luciferin K salt (Dojindo, Kumamoto, Japan), 0.1 mm. Bioluminescence from each tissue was measured for 1 min at 10-min intervals for 5 successive days with a photomultiplier tube (Lumicycle, Actimetrics or Kronos, Atto, Tokyo, Japan). The discrete brain areas examined were major parts of the brain dopaminergic system. The brain tissue containing the SN

included functionally different structures such as the SN pars compacta, SN pars Selleckchem Saracatinib reticulata and ventral tegmental area. They were not separated in the present study. Twenty-four-hour profiles of spontaneous movement and wheel-running activity in individual rats were analysed in 1-h bins. The individual profiles were averaged for 2 days immediately before the restricted schedule (pre-R) and for the last 2 days (days 12 and 13) of the schedule. When the day corresponded to the estrus in the sexual cycle, the result on that day was replaced by those from the immediately prior proestrus or diestrus day. The group data were

obtained by averaging these individual profiles. Circadian rhythmicity in behavior and its period were evaluated by χ2 periodogram analysis in the range 10–40 h with a significance level of 0.01 (clocklab software, Actimetrics, Evanston, IL, USA). Behavior records in 5-min bins were used for this analysis. The pre-R records of the last 7 days and ad-MAP records of the first 10 days were used for the analyses in the SCN-lesioned rats. The ad-MAP records of the first 5 days were used in the SCN-intact rats. The onset, offset and midpoint of activity Selleck DAPT bands of behavioral rhythms were determined by ClockLab. Time series of bioluminescence data were detrended using a 24-h moving average subtraction method (Yamanaka et al., 2008) and smoothed with a five-point moving average method. A circadian peak was identified when a peak–trough difference in a single circadian range was > 2 SD of the values contained in the range. The circadian peak that appeared within 48 h after the start of culturing was regarded as the first circadian peak. When no clear peak appeared, the data were excluded from further analyses.

Bacteria establish copper homeostasis chiefly by exporting excess copper and by sequestering cytoplasmic copper with copper chaperones for safe delivery to copper exporters and copper-requiring proteins (Solioz et al., 2010). The genes involved in copper homeostasis are regulated by copper-responsive transcriptional regulators. Lactococcus lactis has been used recently as a model organism for the study of bacterial copper homeostasis. It was found that a set selleck kinase inhibitor of widely diverse genes are under the control of the CopR copper-responsive repressor (Magnani et al., 2008). This so-called CopR regulon encompasses 14 genes: two monocistronic genes (lctO, copB) and four operons (ydiDE,

yahCD-yaiAB, ytjDBA and copRZA). Some of the proteins encoded by these genes, such as the CopR repressor, the CopZ copper chaperone and the two copper ATPases, CopA and CopB, play an evident role in copper homeostasis by dealing directly with copper ions (Solioz & Vulpe, 1996; Solioz & Stoyanov,

2003; Solioz et al., 2011). Two more proteins of the CopR regulon have been studied in detail: LctO is a lactate oxidase that converts lactate to pyruvate under the use of molecular oxygen, presumably to reduce oxygen tension and thus oxygen-associated stress (Barréet al., 2007). GKT137831 purchase CinD, on the other hand, is a nitroreductase (encoded by ytjD) that can detoxify nitro compounds that exacerbate copper stress (Mermod et al., 2010). In the present study, we investigated the function of another member gene of the CopR regulon, yahD. By sequence comparison, this gene is predicted to encode an α/β serine hydrolase of 206 amino acids. The α/β-hydrolase fold is one of the most versatile and widespread folds known (Nardini & Dijkstra, 1999). Even though all the members of this superfamily have a similar fold and a conserved catalytic triad, they exhibit wide substrate specificity. Serine hydrolases use a nucleophilic serine to hydrolyze amidic, ester and thioester bonds in small molecules or proteins (Simon & Cravatt, 2010). YahD was found to be induced Cyclooxygenase (COX) by copper, cadmium and silver, but not by other metals or by oxidative or

nitrosative stress-inducing chemicals. The three-dimensional structure of YahD was resolved by X-ray crystallography to a resolution of 1.88 Å and was found to exhibit an α/β-hydrolase fold with the characteristic Ser-His-Asp catalytic triad. YahD did not catalyze any of the known α/β serine hydrolase reactions and appears to represent a novel subclass of serine hydrolases. Lactococcus lactis IL1403 was grown semi-anaerobically (air-saturated media in sealed bottles), in M17 media (Terzaghi & Sandine, 1975) at 30 °C or on plates containing M17 media with 1.5% agar (AppliChem, Darmstadt, Germany). Escherichia coli DH5α (Stratagene, La Jolla, CA) and ER2566 (Invitrogen life Technologies) cells used for cloning were transformed according to the manufacturer’s instructions.

Using Fura-2AM to monitor intracellular Ca2+, it was observed that inhibition of the BK channel during glutamate-induced depolarization led to an additive increase in intracellular Ca2+ levels. Electrophysiological difference currents demonstrated that the expression levels of the BK channel decrease

with developmental age. This latter finding was further corroborated via RT-PCR and Western blot analysis. We conclude that the BK channel is involved in regulating Ca2+ influx in OPCs, and may potentially play a role during differentiation of oligodendroglial lineage cells. “
“Brain vasculature forms the blood–brain barrier (BBB) that restricts the movement of molecules between the brain PI3K assay and blood, but the capillary of the median eminence (ME) lacks the BBB for secretion

of adenohypophysial hormone-releasing peptides. In the present study, we aimed to elucidate whether continuous angiogenesis occurs in the ME of adult mice. By using a mitotic marker, bromodeoxyuridine (BrdU), we demonstrated that new endothelial cells were born continuously in the ME of adults. Prominent expression of NG2, platelet-derived growth factor receptor B (PDGFRB), and delta-like ligand 4 was observed at pericytes of adults, although the expression of these angiogenesis-associated proteins has been shown to be at low or trace levels Inhibitor Library manufacturer in adult mature capillary. In addition, vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), a key regulator of angiogenesis, was Mirabegron expressed highly in the nervous parenchyma of the ME. Expression of VEGF receptor 2 (VEGFR2) was observed at endothelial cells in the external zone and at somatodendrites in the internal zone. Finally, a VEGFR- and PDGFR-associated tyrosine kinase inhibitor, SU11248, significantly decreased the number of BrdU-positive proliferating endothelial cells and

parenchyma cells. In conclusion, the present study demonstrates VEGF-dependent continuous angiogenesis in the ME of adult mouse brains under normal conditions, which provides new insight into our understanding of neurosecretion in the ME. “
“Astrocytes are known to express the gap junction forming proteins connexin30 (Cx30) and connexin43 (Cx43), but it has remained controversial whether these cells also express connexin26 (Cx26). To investigate this issue further, we examined immunofluorescence labelling of glial connexins in wild-type vs. transgenic mice with targeted deletion of Cx26 in neuronal and glial cells (Cx26fl/fl:Nestin-Cre mice). The Cx26 antibodies utilized specifically recognized Cx26 and lacked cross reaction with highly homologous Cx30, as demonstrated by immunoblotting and immunofluorescence in Cx26-transfected and Cx30-transfected C6 glioma cells. Punctate immunolabelling of Cx26 with these antibodies was observed in leptomeninges and subcortical brain regions.

Using Fura-2AM to monitor intracellular Ca2+, it was observed that inhibition of the BK channel during glutamate-induced depolarization led to an additive increase in intracellular Ca2+ levels. Electrophysiological difference currents demonstrated that the expression levels of the BK channel decrease

with developmental age. This latter finding was further corroborated via RT-PCR and Western blot analysis. We conclude that the BK channel is involved in regulating Ca2+ influx in OPCs, and may potentially play a role during differentiation of oligodendroglial lineage cells. “
“Brain vasculature forms the blood–brain barrier (BBB) that restricts the movement of molecules between the brain find more and blood, but the capillary of the median eminence (ME) lacks the BBB for secretion

of adenohypophysial hormone-releasing peptides. In the present study, we aimed to elucidate whether continuous angiogenesis occurs in the ME of adult mice. By using a mitotic marker, bromodeoxyuridine (BrdU), we demonstrated that new endothelial cells were born continuously in the ME of adults. Prominent expression of NG2, platelet-derived growth factor receptor B (PDGFRB), and delta-like ligand 4 was observed at pericytes of adults, although the expression of these angiogenesis-associated proteins has been shown to be at low or trace levels GDC0068 in adult mature capillary. In addition, vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), a key regulator of angiogenesis, was Endonuclease expressed highly in the nervous parenchyma of the ME. Expression of VEGF receptor 2 (VEGFR2) was observed at endothelial cells in the external zone and at somatodendrites in the internal zone. Finally, a VEGFR- and PDGFR-associated tyrosine kinase inhibitor, SU11248, significantly decreased the number of BrdU-positive proliferating endothelial cells and

parenchyma cells. In conclusion, the present study demonstrates VEGF-dependent continuous angiogenesis in the ME of adult mouse brains under normal conditions, which provides new insight into our understanding of neurosecretion in the ME. “
“Astrocytes are known to express the gap junction forming proteins connexin30 (Cx30) and connexin43 (Cx43), but it has remained controversial whether these cells also express connexin26 (Cx26). To investigate this issue further, we examined immunofluorescence labelling of glial connexins in wild-type vs. transgenic mice with targeted deletion of Cx26 in neuronal and glial cells (Cx26fl/fl:Nestin-Cre mice). The Cx26 antibodies utilized specifically recognized Cx26 and lacked cross reaction with highly homologous Cx30, as demonstrated by immunoblotting and immunofluorescence in Cx26-transfected and Cx30-transfected C6 glioma cells. Punctate immunolabelling of Cx26 with these antibodies was observed in leptomeninges and subcortical brain regions.

corniculatus and C. epigejos) used as independent variables. A two-way anova was performed to establish significant interactions between the harvesting time and treatment. Significant Epigenetic inhibitor differences for specific variables were identified using Duncan’s post hoc test at P<0.05 following a one-way anova. Exponential curve fitting (Fig. 1) was performed using sigma plot 11.2. A principal component analysis (PCA)

was performed on the variance–covariance matrix using the statistical software r. Data illustration was performed using adobe illustrator cs3 and s-plus 8.1. Results are presented as means with SDs given in parentheses; the PCA plots are based on individual replicates. As expected, the N content of C. epigejos plant litter was significantly lower compared with L. corniculatus, which resulted in a C/N ratio of 40.46 (± 1.14) for C. epigejos compared with 14.24 (± 0.79) for L. corniculatus (data not shown). Plant litter of both L. corniculatus and C. epigejos decreased significantly during the 40-week experimental PARP activity period (Fig. 1a). However, significantly higher decomposition rates (P<0.0001) were obtained for the L. corniculatus litter material. This result is in accordance with Hopkins

et al. (2007), who found a faster decomposition rate of plant litter with higher nutritional quality, in volcanic soils of initial nature with a low nutrient status, which was comparable to the substrate used in the present experiment. After 40 weeks of litter incubation, litter residues of 36.2% (± 1.7) and 25.4% (± 2.4) of the initial amounts of C. epigejos and L. corniculatus litter, respectively, Cepharanthine were measured. The decomposition rates of litter generally depend on the litter quality, which is usually linked to easily available nutrients (e.g. sugars or amino acids), recalcitrant C compounds (e.g. lignin or suberin) and substances

with antimicrobial properties (such as certain phenolic compounds or long-chain alkanes; Berg, 2000; Palosuo et al., 2005). Therefore, the initial mass loss of plant litter during the first 4 weeks of incubation observed in the present study can be attributed to the large amounts of water soluble plant litter components (e.g. proteins, sugars, amino acids) that are used by microorganisms colonizing the litter material to increase their activity patterns and to accumulate biomass (Aneja et al., 2006; Poll et al., 2008). A significant decrease in the content of N was detected after 4 weeks (P<0.05) for both types of litter material (Fig. 1b). According to Fioretto et al. (2005), high N availability is a major driver for litter decomposition in the early stages of litter degradation. Originating from the labelling procedure, plants were harvested at a very young stage (after 6–8 weeks), which might have resulted in a higher litter quality compared with in situ plant litter, especially with respect to the N content.

corniculatus and C. epigejos) used as independent variables. A two-way anova was performed to establish significant interactions between the harvesting time and treatment. Significant AZD1208 cost differences for specific variables were identified using Duncan’s post hoc test at P<0.05 following a one-way anova. Exponential curve fitting (Fig. 1) was performed using sigma plot 11.2. A principal component analysis (PCA)

was performed on the variance–covariance matrix using the statistical software r. Data illustration was performed using adobe illustrator cs3 and s-plus 8.1. Results are presented as means with SDs given in parentheses; the PCA plots are based on individual replicates. As expected, the N content of C. epigejos plant litter was significantly lower compared with L. corniculatus, which resulted in a C/N ratio of 40.46 (± 1.14) for C. epigejos compared with 14.24 (± 0.79) for L. corniculatus (data not shown). Plant litter of both L. corniculatus and C. epigejos decreased significantly during the 40-week experimental http://www.selleckchem.com/products/Trichostatin-A.html period (Fig. 1a). However, significantly higher decomposition rates (P<0.0001) were obtained for the L. corniculatus litter material. This result is in accordance with Hopkins

et al. (2007), who found a faster decomposition rate of plant litter with higher nutritional quality, in volcanic soils of initial nature with a low nutrient status, which was comparable to the substrate used in the present experiment. After 40 weeks of litter incubation, litter residues of 36.2% (± 1.7) and 25.4% (± 2.4) of the initial amounts of C. epigejos and L. corniculatus litter, respectively, many were measured. The decomposition rates of litter generally depend on the litter quality, which is usually linked to easily available nutrients (e.g. sugars or amino acids), recalcitrant C compounds (e.g. lignin or suberin) and substances

with antimicrobial properties (such as certain phenolic compounds or long-chain alkanes; Berg, 2000; Palosuo et al., 2005). Therefore, the initial mass loss of plant litter during the first 4 weeks of incubation observed in the present study can be attributed to the large amounts of water soluble plant litter components (e.g. proteins, sugars, amino acids) that are used by microorganisms colonizing the litter material to increase their activity patterns and to accumulate biomass (Aneja et al., 2006; Poll et al., 2008). A significant decrease in the content of N was detected after 4 weeks (P<0.05) for both types of litter material (Fig. 1b). According to Fioretto et al. (2005), high N availability is a major driver for litter decomposition in the early stages of litter degradation. Originating from the labelling procedure, plants were harvested at a very young stage (after 6–8 weeks), which might have resulted in a higher litter quality compared with in situ plant litter, especially with respect to the N content.

In fact, the concentrations reported in the literature for AHLs in the culture media of the model microorganism Vibrio fischeri usually range between 0.4 and 400 nM (Kaplan & Greenberg, 1985; Schaefer et al., 2002; Burton et al., 2005), significantly lower than the concentrations exhibiting inhibitory activity against Anabaena sp. PCC7120. In conclusion, AHLs strongly inhibit nitrogen fixation in Anabaena sp. PCC7120, although they do not affect the process of heterocyst differentiation because no changes were observed in the frequency, pattern of differentiation, permeability of the heterocyst

cell wall or expression of regulatory Regorafenib concentration genes whose products are involved in differentiation (ntcA). The strong inhibition of nitrogenase activity observed could be related to nitrogen fixation blockage at a post-transcriptional level, mainly on newly formed heterocysts. Moreover, a possible new activity of AHL signals was found for OC10-HSL in the presence of combined

nitrogen, differing from those activities described for oxo-substituted and AHL tetramic acid derivatives. learn more The presence of acylase activity against long-chain AHLs described in the biomass of Anabaena sp. PCC7120 (Romero et al., 2008) could be related to the negative effects of AHLs in this cyanobacterium. This AHL-degradation mechanism would protect the filaments, at normal environmental concentrations, from exogenous signals with potential cytotoxic and inhibitory activities on the cyanobacterium. This work was financed by a grant from Consellería de Innovación e Industria, Xunta de Galicia PGIDIT06PXIB200045PR. M.R. was supported by an FPU fellowship from the Spanish Ministry of Education and Science and a predoctoral fellowship from Diputación

de A Coruña. We would like to thank Prof. Kim D. Janda and Dr Gunnar F. Kaufmann for kindly providing us with OC12-tetramic acid. We also would like to thank Prof. Miguel Cámara for providing us with synthetic AHLs. “
“Helicobacter pylori is a unique bacterial selleck products species that assimilates various steroids as membrane lipid components. Our group has recently found, however, that certain steroids may impair the viability of H. pylori. In this study, we go on to reveal that estradiol, androstenedione, and progesterone (PS) all have the potential to inhibit the growth of H. pylori. Of these three steroid hormones, progesterone demonstrated the most effective anti-H. pylori action. 17α-hydroxyprogesterone caproate (17αPSCE), a synthetic progesterone derivative, had a much stronger anti-H. pylori action than progesterone, whereas 17α-hydroxyprogesterone, a natural progesterone derivative, completely failed to inhibit the growth of the organism. Progesterone and 17αPSCE were both found to kill H. pylori through their bacteriolytic action. Among five bacterial species investigated, H. pylori was the only species susceptible to the bactericidal action of progesterone and 17αPSCE.

A crucial function of sensory systems is to facilitate adaptive behavior in constantly changing environments. Hence, recurring cues that reliably predict impending danger or reward elicit enhanced sensory processing (Sokolov, 1963). In the mammalian Selleckchem BI-6727 brain, aversive and appetitive learning leads to cue-related retuning of neuronal response profiles within primary sensory cortex (Weinberger, 2004; Shuler & Bear, 2006), driven perhaps by lowering response thresholds or altering synaptic connectivity in primary representation areas (Keil

et al., 2007), potentially via re-entrant feedback originating in deep structures such as the amygdala (Amaral, 2003). Thus, sensory processing becomes biased towards affectively conditioned cues, which are more easily identified than non-relevant

stimuli (Quirk et al., 1995). In the human visual system, such prioritization has been selleck chemicals demonstrated with phobic content (Öhman et al., 2001) and during classical conditioning (Moratti et al., 2006), where neutral stimuli [i.e., the conditioned stimulus (CS+)] paired with noxious events (e.g., electric shock) elicit facilitated sensory responses, compared to the non-paired stimuli (i.e., the CS–; Stolarova et al., 2006). It remains unclear, however, what sensory pathways mediate the acquisition of threat-cue-specific response amplification. Work examining the perception of emotional faces or complex scenes has attempted to uncover the precise compositional features that drive sensory facilitation by manipulating the physical

properties of images, thus challenging specific subsystems within the visual system (Bocanegra & Zeelenberg, 2009). This research suggests that perceptual biases for threat-related stimuli may depend on the brain’s ability to extract information from low-spatial-frequency and luminance channels, sometimes equated with the magnocellular Unoprostone pathway of the human visual system (Pourtois et al., 2005). For instance, effects of spatial frequency on electrophysiological indices of emotion perception are observed for visual event-related potentials such as the N1 (Carretie et al., 2007) but not for late positivities (> 300 ms latency) to complex affective scenes (De Cesarei & Codispoti, 2011) or conditioned cues (Baas et al., 2002). One may hypothesize that different visual pathways vary in their ability to mediate experience-dependent sensory amplification of learned danger signals. In this study, we tested this hypothesis by preferentially stimulating distinct pathways: (i) luminance and (ii) chromatic pathways.