The suppression of action potentials was preserved under blockade of postsynaptic G-proteins, although baclofen-induced hyperpolarisation

MG-132 cost was completely blocked. These findings suggest presynaptic effects of baclofen on the induced action potentials. Under voltage-clamp conditions, application of baclofen reduced the frequency, but not the amplitude, of miniature excitatory postsynaptic currents (mEPSCs), whereas the GABAB receptor antagonist CGP55845 increased the frequency of mEPSCs without affecting the amplitude. Furthermore, application of a GABA uptake inhibitor, nipecotic acid, decreased the frequency of mEPSCs; this effect was blocked by CGP55845, but not by the GABAA antagonist bicuculline. Both the frequency and the amplitude of the pinch-evoked barrage of excitatory postsynaptic currents (EPSCs) were suppressed by baclofen

in a dose-dependent click here manner. The frequency and amplitude of touch-evoked EPSCs was also suppressed by baclofen, but the suppression was significantly smaller than that of pinch-evoked EPSCs. We conclude that mechanical noxious transmission is presynaptically blocked through GABAB receptors in the SG, and is more effectively suppressed than innocuous transmission, which may account for a part of the mechanism of the efficient analgesic effects of baclofen. “
“The N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor (NMDAR) exhibits strong voltage-dependent block by extracellular Mg2+, which is relieved by sustained depolarization and glutamate binding, and which is central to the function of the NMDAR

in synaptic plasticity. Rapid membrane depolarization during agonist application reveals a slow unblock of NMDARs, which has important functional implications, for example in the generation of NMDAR spikes, and in determining the narrow time window for spike-timing-dependent plasticity. However, its mechanism is still unclear. Here, we study unblock of divalent cations in native NMDARs in nucleated patches isolated from mouse cortical layer 2/3 pyramidal neurons. Comparing unblock kinetics of NMDARs in the presence of extracellular Mg2+or in nominally zero Mg2+, and with Mn2+or Co2+substituting for Mg2+, we found that the properties of slow unblock Oxymatrine were determined by the identity of the blocking metal ion at the binding site, presumably by affecting the operation of a structural link to channel gating. The time course of slow unblock was not affected by zinc, or the zinc chelator TPEN [N,N,N′,N′-tetrakis-(2-pyridylmethyl)-ethylenediamine], while the slower fraction of unblock was reduced by ifenprodil, an NR2B-selective antagonist. Slow unblock was only weakly temperature dependent, speeding up with rise in temperature with a Q10 of ≈1.5. Finally, using action potential waveform voltage-clamp, we show that this slow relief from divalent cation block is a prominent feature in physiologically realistic patterns of changing membrane potential.

Measures of attention were correlated with DTI parameters in the right superior longitudinal fasciculus, whereas measures of impulsivity were Small molecule library in vitro correlated with FA in right orbitofrontal fibre tracts. This is the first DTI study

demonstrating disturbed structural connectivity of the frontal-striatal circuitry in adult patients with ADHD. Moreover, a direct correlation between WM integrity and measures of attention and impulsivity is shown. Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a frequent psychiatric disorder in childhood and adolescence persisting into adulthood in a considerable number of patients (Faraone et al., 2000). Inattention and impulsivity are the most prominent clinical features of ADHD in adulthood (Seidman et al., 2004). ADHD is highly heritable, and there is convergent evidence that it may be associated with neurobiological deficits in the fronto-striatal network (Castellanos, 1997; Spencer et al., 2002; Emond et al., 2009). Neuroimaging studies of subjects with

ADHD have been predominantly conducted in children and adolescents, and have been mostly based on magnetic resonance Acalabrutinib imaging (MRI) measurements (for review, see: Seidman et al., 2005; Valera et al., 2007). Volumetric MRI studies primarily demonstrated abnormalities of the fronto-striatal circuitry [e.g. dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, basal ganglia, anterior cingulate cortex (ACC)], but there is also growing literature supporting fronto-cerebellar abnormalities in ADHD (Castellanos, 1997; Giedd et al., 2001; Seidman et al., 2005; Valera et al., 2007). To date, only few MRI studies in adult patients with ADHD have been published (Hesslinger et al., 2002; Seidman et al., 2006; Makris et al., 2007, 2008). Smaller overall cortical grey matter, prefrontal and ACC volumes in adult patients

with ADHD have Telomerase been shown (Seidman et al., 2006), emphasizing that these areas are involved in attention and executive control. Moreover, a significant reduction of the volume of the left orbitofrontal cortex in adult patients with ADHD has been demonstrated (Hesslinger et al., 2002). During the last years, diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) became available to investigate human brain microstructure, i.e. the integrity of white matter (WM) fibre tracts. With DTI, diffusion of water molecules can be characterized by two diffusion parameters: (i) mean diffusivity (MD), which measures the rotationally invariant magnitude of water diffusion; and (ii) fractional anisotropy (FA), which provides an index of directional selectivity of water diffusion (Beaulieu, 2002). In brain WM, myelination properties, fibre organization, axonal diameter, fibre density and the ratio of intracellular/extracellular space contribute to differences in FA and MD (Beaulieu, 2002; Schmithorst et al., 2002).

, 2008). Enhanced green fluorescent protein (eGFP) was used for tagging A. brasilense strains (Wisniewski-Dyé et al., 2011). To construct egfp-containing strains, both A. brasilense strains were transformed by biparental conjugation using the Escherichia coli S17.1 harboring the broad range plasmid pMP2444 as the donor strain (Bloemberg et al., 2000). Transconjugants were isolated in Nfb with 25 μg mL−1 Gentamicin, and the stability of the plasmid was tested by streaking out single colonies

on Luria–Bertani (LB) medium for 80 successive generations (Carreño-López et al., 2000). Bacteria were grown on Agar Congo Red (ACR) plates (Rodríguez-Cáceres, 1982) for 5 days and then isolated typical colonies were chosen and each one was transferred to 125-mL flasks

containing 25 mL of LB (Difco) medium plus 5 mM MgSO4 and 3.3 mM high throughput screening assay CaCl2. These precultures were incubated at 30 °C with orbital agitation (100 r.p.m.) for 16 h until risen to 1.1–1.4 OD540 nm. Cells were harvested by centrifugation at 7500 g (Labnet Z300K) for 10 min, washed with phosphate buffer (66 mM), and resuspended to a final OD540 nm = 2. Cultures DMXAA ic50 were diluted 1/100 in fresh Nfb-malic medium (Döbereiner & Day, 1976) modified to achieve a relation C : N = 2 using malic acid at 27.6 mM and supplemented with 13.8 mM NH4Cl or 13.8 mM KNO3 as N source. Two mL per well was transferred to sterile clear flat-bottom polystyrene 24-well plates (Costar) and incubated without agitation

for 5 days at 30 °C. All media used for Faj164 strain were supplemented with Kanamycin (25 μg mL−1; Sigma). For pMP2444-transformed heptaminol strains, Gentamicin (25 μg mL−1; Sigma) was also added. At 24-h (d1), 96-h (d3), or 120-h (d5) total growth, adhered plus planktonic cells were quantified by OD540nm measurements. Bacterial biofilm over walls of wells was mechanically removed and mixed with planktonic cells using sterile plastic sticks and agitation. This procedure efficiently removes biofilm and allows reading OD540nm using a micro plate reader (Spectra MR; Dynex Technologies). Also, viable bacteria were enumerated by dilution plating on ACR, using drop plate method (Herigstad et al., 2001). Biofilm formation was determined using crystal violet staining (O’Toole & Kolter, 1998). Briefly, each well was added with 0.5 mL of 0.5 % crystal violet. Plates were incubated for 30 min at room temperature, and then washed carefully three times with tap water. Dye attached to the wells was extracted with 2 mL of 33% acetic acid. OD590 nm in each well was determined using a micro plate reader. Data were normalized by total growth estimated by OD540 nm. Both pMP2444-transformed A. brasilense Sp245 and Faj164 strains grew for d1, d3, and d5 under static growth conditions as indicated above.

, 2008). Enhanced green fluorescent protein (eGFP) was used for tagging A. brasilense strains (Wisniewski-Dyé et al., 2011). To construct egfp-containing strains, both A. brasilense strains were transformed by biparental conjugation using the Escherichia coli S17.1 harboring the broad range plasmid pMP2444 as the donor strain (Bloemberg et al., 2000). Transconjugants were isolated in Nfb with 25 μg mL−1 Gentamicin, and the stability of the plasmid was tested by streaking out single colonies

on Luria–Bertani (LB) medium for 80 successive generations (Carreño-López et al., 2000). Bacteria were grown on Agar Congo Red (ACR) plates (Rodríguez-Cáceres, 1982) for 5 days and then isolated typical colonies were chosen and each one was transferred to 125-mL flasks

containing 25 mL of LB (Difco) medium plus 5 mM MgSO4 and 3.3 mM GS-1101 CaCl2. These precultures were incubated at 30 °C with orbital agitation (100 r.p.m.) for 16 h until risen to 1.1–1.4 OD540 nm. Cells were harvested by centrifugation at 7500 g (Labnet Z300K) for 10 min, washed with phosphate buffer (66 mM), and resuspended to a final OD540 nm = 2. Cultures Lenvatinib were diluted 1/100 in fresh Nfb-malic medium (Döbereiner & Day, 1976) modified to achieve a relation C : N = 2 using malic acid at 27.6 mM and supplemented with 13.8 mM NH4Cl or 13.8 mM KNO3 as N source. Two mL per well was transferred to sterile clear flat-bottom polystyrene 24-well plates (Costar) and incubated without agitation

for 5 days at 30 °C. All media used for Faj164 strain were supplemented with Kanamycin (25 μg mL−1; Sigma). For pMP2444-transformed Erastin supplier strains, Gentamicin (25 μg mL−1; Sigma) was also added. At 24-h (d1), 96-h (d3), or 120-h (d5) total growth, adhered plus planktonic cells were quantified by OD540nm measurements. Bacterial biofilm over walls of wells was mechanically removed and mixed with planktonic cells using sterile plastic sticks and agitation. This procedure efficiently removes biofilm and allows reading OD540nm using a micro plate reader (Spectra MR; Dynex Technologies). Also, viable bacteria were enumerated by dilution plating on ACR, using drop plate method (Herigstad et al., 2001). Biofilm formation was determined using crystal violet staining (O’Toole & Kolter, 1998). Briefly, each well was added with 0.5 mL of 0.5 % crystal violet. Plates were incubated for 30 min at room temperature, and then washed carefully three times with tap water. Dye attached to the wells was extracted with 2 mL of 33% acetic acid. OD590 nm in each well was determined using a micro plate reader. Data were normalized by total growth estimated by OD540 nm. Both pMP2444-transformed A. brasilense Sp245 and Faj164 strains grew for d1, d3, and d5 under static growth conditions as indicated above.

, 2009;Fig. 1). Regulation of the cyclopropane synthase (CFA synthase) is of great interest because of its role in the response to stresses such as acid stress in E. coli (Chang & Cronan, 1999) and the presence of toxic compounds like toluene and other organic solvents (Pini et al., 2009). In E. coli and P. putida, CFAs start to accumulate at the late stages of the exponential growth phase and reach maximal levels at the stationary phase of growth (Grogan & Cronan, 1997; Muñoz-Rojas et al., 2006; Pini et al., 2009). Although two different putative CFA synthase genes (cfaA [PP2734] and cfaB [PP5365]) were previously annotated in the P. putida

KT2440 genome (Nelson et al., 2002), Muñoz-Rojas et al. (2006) demonstrated that the cfaB gene of P. putida KT2440 encodes the main enzyme responsible INK128 for the synthesis of CFAs, a result that was latter confirmed in other P. putida strains (Pini et al., 2009). The substrates

of the CFA-synthase, the cis-UFAs, are also substrates for the cis–trans isomerase (CTI, http://www.selleckchem.com/products/Lapatinib-Ditosylate.html Fig. 1), a key enzyme in the modification of membrane fluidity in response to the presence of organic solvents or temperature changes (Heipieper et al., 1992; Sikkema et al., 1995; Pinkart et al., 1996; Weber & de Bont, 1996; Junker & Ramos, 1999; Loffhagen et al., 2001; Härtig et al., 2005; Bernal et al., 2007). The presence of trans-UFAs and CFAs in microbial membranes has an influence on its properties (Jarrell et al., 1983; Loffhagen et al., 2007), and several reports have suggested competition for cis-UFAs between cis- to trans-isomerase and CFA synthase for the synthesis of trans-UFAs and the CFAs, respectively (Härtig et al., 2005; Pini et al., 2009). It was therefore of interest to explore whether cross-talk between these two enzymes exists in Pseudomonas. Pseudomonas putida KT2440 was grown in Luria–Bertani (LB) medium. Cultures Thiamine-diphosphate kinase were incubated at 30 °C and shaken on an orbital platform operating at 200 strokes min−1. Cells were grown in LB until the exponential (OD660 nm 0.8) or the stationary phase (OD660 nm 3) and samples were harvested by centrifugation before lipid

extraction according to Bligh & Dyer (1959). When the stressor was used, cells were first grown until they reached the exponential or the stationary phase, then the compound was added and cultures were incubated for 1 h under the same growth conditions before lipid extraction. Fatty acids were identified and determined by MS after GC separation and the areas under the peaks were used to determine their relative amounts. Cells of P. putida KT2440 grown overnight in LB medium were diluted 1 : 100 in the same medium and incubated for 12 h. Samples (15 mL) were harvested by centrifugation and RNA was extracted. Primer extension was performed using oligonucleotides p180 and p100, which were complementary to the coding strands within the cfaB gene as described in Pini et al. (2009).

Subjects without baseline proteinuria (i.e. either normal protein excretion phosphatase inhibitor library or microalbuminuria) who developed proteinuria were more likely to have microalbuminuria (P=0.001), a lower CD4 cell count (P=0.06), and a higher plasma HIV RNA (P=0.03) than those who did not progress to proteinuria. In multivariate analysis, only microalbuminuria remained associated with the development of proteinuria (odds ratio 2.9; 95% confidence interval 1.5, 5.5; P=0.001). Microalbuminuria predicts the development of proteinuria

among HIV-infected persons. Because proteinuria has been linked to poorer outcomes, strategies to affect microalbuminuria should be tested. Survival among persons with HIV infection has improved significantly over the last decade [1]. Concurrent with these improvements in morbidity and mortality, there has been an increase in the proportions of deaths among HIV-infected persons attributable to liver and kidney disease [2]. As a result, there has been an increasing focus in research and clinical care on chronic liver and kidney conditions, which has improved our understanding of their pathogenesis as long-term complications of HIV infection,

as consequences of toxicities related to the medications used to treat HIV infection, and as comorbidities in an aging population with conditions such as diabetes mellitus, hypertension and hyperlipidaemia. Microalbuminuria and proteinuria both serve as markers of glomerular function. An intact glomerulus will maintain the barrier to filtration between the capillary and urinary spaces, resulting in minimal levels of albumin Pirfenidone or protein in the urine. Albumin excretion greater than 30 mg per day and protein excretion exceeding 350 mg per day are abnormal and generally signify a process or disease that is affecting Niclosamide this barrier to diffusion. Among patients with diabetes mellitus, the presence of microalbuminuria is associated with the risk of developing overt proteinuria and death [3–5] and is considered a marker of progressive kidney disease. These associations suggest that microalbuminuria is

probably a marker of early vascular damage related specifically to abnormal glycosylation in diabetes mellitus or to more general processes in other chronic illnesses. Among HIV-infected persons, the presence of proteinuria has been linked to increased risk of chronic kidney disease (CKD), end-stage renal disease (ESRD), new AIDS-defining illness and mortality [6–8]. The association of proteinuria with these outcomes suggests that it might be a marker of a more diffuse vascular process and that this process might affect outcomes both within and outside the kidney. Based on this, the identification of an earlier marker of patients at higher risk to develop proteinuria could be clinically advantageous.

This

will increase the efficiency of the hospital service and improve the patient experience. 1. Department of Health, 2004. Achieving timely ‘simple’ discharge from hospital. A toolkit for the multi-disciplinary team. [pdf] London: Department of Health. Available at: http://www.bipsolutions.com/docstore/pdf/8092.pdf. [Accessed 08/11/2013]. 2. Onatade R, Mehta R. Small molecule library cost Improving the patients’; discharge experience is an important pharmacy goal. Quality Assessment: Pharmacy in Practice (2009);19(3):11–13. S. Dharasa, B. Dean Franklina,b aUCL School of Pharmacy, London, UK, bImperial College Healthcare NHS Trust, London, UK We wanted to establish what information elective surgery and emergency medical patients bring into hospital about their regular medication. Overall, 90 (63%) of 144 patients taking regular medication brought

in information about their medication; most was paper-based and none AG-014699 datasheet was electronic. Patients should be encouraged to carry information about their medication and be informed about the various booklets, devices and electronic applications available. Obtaining an accurate medication history enables healthcare professionals to make fully informed decisions regarding treatment for hospital inpatients. Currently in England there is no centralised information system to share medication-related information between primary and secondary care. Ascertaining a medication history therefore relies on obtaining information from various sources, including the patient. Information that inpatients bring into hospital with them is likely to contribute to accurate recording of medication histories and hence the safe prescribing of drugs. Initiatives such as My Medication Passport1 encourage patients to hold a personal record of their medications to help transfer information between healthcare providers. Our

objectives were to explore whether patients taking regular medication bring in information about this when admitted to hospital, and to describe the types of information provided. Niclosamide We studied an elective surgical admissions ward and an emergency medical admissions ward in a teaching hospital in Spring 2013. We focused on patients taking regular long term medication prior to admission as pilot work suggested patients found it difficult to decide which “when required” medication to report. We excluded patients admitted from care homes. Data were recorded by a pharmacy student shadowing the ward pharmacist or technician while they ascertained patients’; medication histories on the study wards. The different types of information brought in by patients were recorded, as were basic patient demographics. Data were analysed descriptively with differences between ward, gender and type of admission explored using chi square tests as an exploratory analysis.

Consistently, low-frequency faces specifically

activate the subcortical visual pathway, including the superior colliculus, pulvinar and amygdala (Vuilleumier et al., 2003). Furthermore, residual visual ability this website was tuned to low spatial frequency in a patient with blindsight due to lesions in the visual cortical areas (Sahraie et al., 2002). This fast activation of the pulvinar might be due to direct inputs from the superior colliculus, contributing to the ability of newborns to orient toward faces. The present study provides neurophysiological evidence of pulvinar involvement in fast and coarse facial information processing. The second hypothesis proposes that interactive activity based on reciprocal connections between the subcortical and cortical areas is important for stimulus recognition and attention (Bullier, 2001;

Pessoa & Adolphs, 2010). These cortico-pulvino-cortical circuits might be involved in coordinating and amplifying signals, and improving signal-to-noise ratios (Shipp, 2003; Pessoa & Adolphs, 2010), as well as modulating interactions between oscillatory processes in different cortical areas, which contributes to visual attention (Serences & Yantis, 2006; Saalmann & Kastner, 2009). Our results here indicate that pulvinar neurons detect face-like patterns in epoch 1, while they categorize the visual stimuli into one of the five stimulus categories in epoch 2. Furthermore, the amount of stimulus information conveyed by the pulvinar neurons and the number of stimulus-differential neurons was higher in epoch 2 than in JQ1 datasheet epoch 1. These results indicate that over pulvinar neurons become more sensitive to other categories of stimuli after epoch 1 (i.e. epoch 2 or later), during which cortical neurons also become active (for response latencies of cortical neurons, see a review by Lamme & Roelfsema, 2000).

These findings suggest that pulvinar responsiveness to a variety of stimuli in epoch 2 might be due to reciprocal connections with cortical areas with similar response latencies. Consistent with this, a neuropsychological study of human patients with pulvinar lesions suggests that the pulvinar is involved in enhancing stimulus saliency (Snow et al., 2009), which might contribute to neural computation in an early stage of stimulus categorization (Meeren et al., 2008). Our results provide direct neurophysiological evidence that pulvinar neurons respond to face-like patterns with short latencies, which seems to be consistent with the view that the pulvinar nuclei comprise a subcortical pathway that rapidly processes coarse facial information. Following the initial recognition of the facial stimulus, the population activity of the pulvinar neurons participates in classifying the facial pattern, with a concomitant increase in the amount of information processed.

Weekly weighing indicated no weight loss in TMZ-treated rats (Fig. S1). Bromodeoxyuridine (BrdU; Sigma) was injected intraperitoneally at a dose of 200 mg/kg (concentration, 15 mg/mL) to mark the dividing cells in the dentate gyrus. In the first experiment Metformin clinical trial (Fig. 1A), the overall effect of TMZ on adult hippocampal neurogenesis was examined in naïve adult rats. To evaluate the effect of chemotherapy on a larger population of cells generated

during and surviving past the drug treatment, we injected BrdU multiple times during the first treatment cycle (three daily injections) – BrdU was injected first, and this was followed by a TMZ injection at least 2 h later. Each BrdU injection labeled the population of cells that were in S-phase during the 2 h for which BrdU remains systemic. In all further experiments, BrdU was injected only once, to enable more straightforward determination of the age of the labeled cell population. In the next two experiments buy AZD8055 (Fig. 1B and C), BrdU was injected at different time points with regard to both drug treatment and learning/training, to verify the expected reduction in the number of BrdU-labeled cells caused by TMZ, and to examine possible changes in this reduction. The rats in the first three experiments (Fig. 1A–C) were all euthanised 21 days after the (last) BrdU injection. In the last experiment (Fig. 1D), we assessed the effects of long-term chemotherapy on the size of the proliferating cell population. For

this, BrdU was injected after a total of four cycles of drug treatment, and rats were euthanised 7 days later. It is acknowledged that the repeated injections might act as a stressor, and thus affect the outcome of the experiments. However, the number enough of injections was the same for rats treated with saline and for those treated with TMZ. In addition, in male rats, stress facilitates rather than impairs learning (Maeng et al., 2010). To assess learning and memory, we used different variations of classical eyeblink conditioning, a type of learning for which the neural basis is well known, and learning does not require

physical activity or exploration. In eyeblink conditioning, a neutral conditioned stimulus (CS) is repeatedly paired with aversive stimulation of the eyelid [unconditioned stimulus (US)]. As a result, the subject learns to blink the eyelid shut in response to the CS. In the trace variant of this task, the CS precedes the US, but the two stimuli do not overlap. In the VLD and delay variants, the CS onset precedes the US, and the two stimuli overlap and coterminate. To study the effects of chemotherapy on hippocampus-dependent associative learning, we trained TMZ/saline-treated rats in trace eyeblink conditioning (Fig. 1B). The same rats were then trained in standard delay eyeblink conditioning, a hippocampus-independent task, to ensure that possible learning deficits observed during trace conditioning were not caused by an overall inability to learn an eyeblink conditioned response.

This sensor net provides extensive coverage over occipital regions, including dense coverage around and inferior to

the occipital pole, which is helpful for capturing activity in retinotopic areas of the visual system (Foxe & Simpson, 2002). Data were sampled at a rate of 250 Hz with an online bandpass filter set at 0.1 Hz high-pass and 50 Hz low-pass. Additional data processing occurred offline by means of EMEGS (ElectroMagnetic EncaphaloGraphy Software) for MATLAB; Peyk et al., 2011). Relative to stimulus onset, epochs were extracted from IWR-1 chemical structure the raw EEG that included 400 ms pre- and 6600 ms post-onset for all conditions. Data were then filtered using a 25-Hz low-pass (cut-off at 3 dB point; 45 dB/octave, 10th Ibrutinib in vitro order Butterworth) and a 1-Hz high-pass

(cut-off at 3 dB point; 18 dB/octave, 4th order Butterworth). Then, statistical parameters were used to find and remove artifact-contaminated channels and trials (Junghofer et al., 2000): the original recording reference (Cz) was first used to detect recording artifacts, and then the data were average-referenced to detect global artifacts. Subsequently, bad sensors within individual trials were identified and interpolated based on rejection criteria for amplitude, SD and gradient. After artifact correction, an average of 18.2 trials per condition (range: 12 to 23) were retained for analysis. Artifact-free segments were averaged in the time domain, following the factorial design of the present study, with phase (habituation, acquisition, extinction), CS type (CS+, CS–) and stimulus type (luminance stimulus, chromatic stimulus). An example

time domain average is shown in Fig. 2. These averages were then transformed into the frequency domain using a Fourier transform of the last 3200 ms (800 sample points) Dimethyl sulfoxide of CS–alone presentation (prior to the US presentation in CS+ acquisition trials). In both the 15- and 14-Hz conditions data were windowed with a cosine square window (20 points rise/fall) and then padded with zeros for a total segment length of 4000 ms, resulting in 0.25-Hz frequency resolution. The late segment was selected based on previous work showing pronounced ssVEP amplitude increase for the CS+ in the time segment immediately preceding the US (Moratti & Keil, 2005; Moratti et al., 2006). Fourier coefficients were normalized by the number of points and the ssVEP amplitude extracted as the absolute value of the Fourier coefficients at the respective driving frequency (14 Hz; 15 Hz). For statistical analyses, the resulting amplitude estimates were pooled across the EGI sensor corresponding to site Oz of the International 10–20 System, where the spectral amplitude was maximal, and its four nearest neighbors. Thus, an ssVEP amplitude estimate was generated for each participant, phase and condition, resulting in 12 estimates per participant.