The number of

patients under follow-up in UK CHIC in the mid-point of each year from 2000 to 2007 was calculated. In order to be classed http://www.selleckchem.com/products/3-methyladenine.html as under follow-up in a given year, patients had to have at least one viral load and/or CD4 cell count measurement in the second half of the year (on or after 1 July) and the earliest date of the patient’s first viral load and CD4 cell count measurement was required to be before 1 July. The proportion of patients with a CD4 count <200 cells/μL and a viral load <50 copies/mL on 1 July of each year was also calculated (based on the measurement closest to 1 July). Patients were defined to be ART experienced in a given year if they had started ART before 1 July. Virological failure of a drug was defined as having occurred if a viral load >500 copies/mL was measured

in an individual, despite at least 6 months of continuous use of the drug. In order to be classed as having extensive triple class failure (ETCF), patients had to extensively fail all three of the original ART classes. Extensive failure of the nucleoside class was defined as virological failure of at least three drugs from the following: zidovudine, stavudine, lamivudine, emtricitabine, didanosine, find more tenofovir or abacavir. Extensive failure of the NNRTI class was defined as virological failure of efavirenz or nevirapine, and extensive failure of the PI class as virological failure of at least one ritonavir-boosted PI. Data from

SOPHID from 2000 onwards were used to determine trends in the total number of patients under care and the number on ART. As the breakdown of patients by risk group and ART status was somewhat different in CHIC compared with SOPHID, probably because the majority of the CHIC centres were in the London area [with a higher proportion of men who have sex with Liothyronine Sodium men (MSM) (58%vs. 42%, respectively, in 2007) and a higher proportion of patients on ART (76%vs. 71%, respectively, in 2007)], for all CHIC-based estimates risk group- and ART status-specific proportions were first obtained and then multiplied up to UK-wide estimates based on the breakdown of risk group and ART status from SOPHID. Death data calculations were based on the HPA’s national new HIV diagnoses and deaths database. The model of HIV infection and the effect of ART (HIV synthesis) that we used has been described in detail elsewhere [15,18]. In brief, it is a stochastic computer simulation model that generates data on the progression of HIV infection and the effect of ART on simulated patients. Variables updated every 3 months include calendar date, age, viral load, CD4 cell count, use of specific drugs, resistance and adherence.

Because of their cytosolic localization, stimuli corresponding to variations in central metabolites are thought to affect the expression of CpxR targets in a CpxA-independent way (Strozen et al., 2005; Wolfe et al., 2008; Kinnersley et al., 2009; Lima et al., Belnacasan 2011). Decreased cAMP levels (Strozen et al., 2005), glucose (Kinnersley

et al., 2009) and intermediates of the acetyl-CoA pathway (Wolfe et al., 2008; Lima et al., 2011) induce the expression of degP and cpxP, respectively. For intermediates of the acetyl-CoA pathway, two mechanisms exist: acetyl phosphate is known to act as a direct phosphor donor for CpxR in vitro (Raivio & Silhavy, 1997) and in vivo (Klein et al., 2007; Groban et al., 2009), and acetyl-CoA promotes the acetylation of RNA polymerase, which is critical for the glucose-dependent induction of cpxP transcription (Lima et al., 2011). In contrast to cytosolic stimuli, Ku0059436 phosphatidylethanolamine depletion, indole, alcohols, acetone and phenethyl alcohol are likely sensed by the TMD of CpxA (Mileykovskaya & Dowhan, 1997; Garbe et al., 2000; Rutherford et al., 2010;

Clarke & Voigt, 2011). All these stimuli are proposed to modulate the physical properties of the inner membrane (Dombek & Ingram, 1984) and result in conformational changes within the membrane helices of CpxA (Anbazhagan et al., 2010). For phosphatidylethanolamine depletion, two specific mechanisms that result in the activation of CpxA are also conceivable: (1) direct influence IKBKE by lipids and (2) indirect effects through alteration of a cell envelope component that is modified in a phosphatidylethanolamine-dependent manner such as LPS (Mileykovskaya & Dowhan, 1997). Alternatively, all these stimuli

might influence CpxA in an indirect way by inducing misfolding of inner membrane proteins (Shimohata et al., 2002, 2007; Akiyama, 2009). Another Cpx-inducing signal that modulates the physical properties of the outer membrane is the attachment to hydrophobic surfaces (Otto & Silhavy, 2002). Surface attachment–induced Cpx activation depends on the outer membrane lipoprotein new lipoprotein E (NlpE; Otto & Silhavy, 2002), suggesting that NlpE might serve as a second accessory protein to deliver signalling information to CpxA. The metals zinc (Lee et al., 2005) and copper (Yamamoto & Ishihama, 2005) are excellent inducers of the Cpx system. Based on the presence of zinc in the CpxP crystal structure (Thede et al., 2011) and the observation that CpxP shares high homology with the metal sensor CnrX (Grass et al., 2000, 2005), it was suggested that CpxP might act as a zinc sensor (Thede et al., 2011). In contrast, it has been suggested that sensing of copper by the Cpx-TCS occurs via NlpE (also known as copper homeostasis protein CutF), because mutation of nlpE results in a decrease in copper tolerance (Gupta et al.

Selection of clones was performed in E. coli DH5α, Arthrobacter sp. 5-FU datasheet 68b and Rhodococcus sp. SQ1

bacteria, which could not utilize 2-hydroxypyridine. E. coli DH5α cells were transformed by ligation mixtures, and kanamycin-resistant clones were grown on NA plates supplemented with IPTG and 2-hydroxypyridine. As the visual inspection of plates did not reveal any coloured colonies, all clones were harvested from agar plates and pooled. The mixture of the recombinant plasmids was isolated and consequently used to transform Arthrobacter sp. 68b and Rhodococcus sp. SQ1 bacteria. A single clone (from ca 4000 clones) was selected on the NA medium supplemented with kanamycin and 2-hydroxypyridine by screening for pigment production. The pHYP1 plasmid containing a 6-kb DNA insert was isolated from the blue pigment producing clone of Rhodococcus sp. SQ1. Sequence analysis of the cloned 6-kb DNA fragment from pHYP1 revealed eight putative ORFs (Fig. 4). Six of them shared the significant (71–87%) sequence homology with hypothetical proteins of the pSI-1 plasmid from Arthrobacter sp. AK-1 (Jerke et al., 2008). Moreover, an identical arrangement of ORFs in both plasmids was observed. The predicted functions of ORFs from pHYP1 are presented in Table 2. New cryptic plasmid, not related to known arthrobacterial

ones, was isolated from A. rhombi PRH1. A conserved sequence found at 45 bp upstream of the repA gene showed remarkable homology to the typical ColE2-type ori (Leret et al., 1998; Yagura et al., 2006). The predicted minimal replication operon of pPRH consisted of repAB genes, which is in accordance with the previous findings that both repA selleck screening library and repB are required for replication of pAL5000 (Stolt & Stoker, 1996a), pFAJ2600 (De Mot et al., 1997), pBLA8 (Leret et al., 1998) and pCASE1 (Tsuchida et al., 2009). All these results supported the conclusion that pPRH is a member of the pAL5000 subfamily of ColE2 family (Stolt & Stoker, 1996a), plasmids belonging to the theta replication C

class (Bruand et al., 1993). Usually, repB is located downstream and overlaps with repA of these plasmids, suggesting that both of these genes form an operon. Correspondingly, the start codon of repB in pPRH overlaps with the stop filipin codon of the repA by one nucleotide. A putative rep operon in pPRH may also include ORF4, which overlaps with repB and encodes a hypothetical protein. The function of ORF4 in the plasmid replication and/or maintenance remains unclear. Phylogenetic analysis of RepA and RepB of pPRH showed that they formed a distinct branch on phylogenetic tree suggesting their evident divergence from homologous proteins (Fig. 2a,b). Two putative conserved domains related replicase and primase, respectively, were detected in RepA from pPRH, which is a common structural feature of other RepA proteins associated with theta replication (De Mot et al., 1997; Leret et al., 1998; Sekine et al., 2006; Matsui et al.

europaea BCCP (Em=+70, +130 mV) (Shimizu et al., 2001), which lacks the distal ligand for the heme molecule with the lowest reduction potential but not to that of R. capsulatus BCCP (Em=−190 to −310, +270 mV) (De Smet et al., 2001) and P. aeruginosa BCCP (Em=–330, +320 mV) (Ellfolk et al., 1983). Thus, relatively high Em value of the lowest potential of the heme would be explained by the fact that the amino acid sequence of QPO that apparently lacks distal ligand of the heme in the middle portion. This idea would be supported by the previous observation showing five-coordinated heme c exhibits higher Em value than that of six-coordinated

heme c (Marboutin et al., 2006). However, although five-coordinated heme c have lower extinction coefficient (Marboutin et al., 2006), the relative spectral contribution of the each heme in QPO was nearly same. Further experiment is needed FLT3 inhibitor to address the coordination of heme in QPO. In the present study, we established HIF inhibitor a system for the overproduction and purification of rQPO to build a base for biophysical research

on QPO. Moreover, we initially measured the midpoint electron potentials for all the heme molecules in the triheme peroxidase. Biochemical analysis for the triheme c peroxidase has recently been undertaken. The results of our study will trigger further studies on QPO, including mutant analyses, and will help elucidate the mechanism underlying quinol–protein interaction and/or interaction among the three heme molecules in

QPO. This work was supported by a Grant-in-Aid for Young Scientists Cediranib (AZD2171) (B) from the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (#19791353 to E.T.) and by a Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research (C) from the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (# 21592346 to K.K.). “
“Brucellosis is a major zoonotic disease caused by pathogens of the genus Brucella. The eradication of brucellosis in domestic animals, associated with the prevention of human infection, can be attained through accurate diagnosis. However, the conventional serological diagnosis of brucellosis has limitations, particularly in detecting the infection period. Accordingly, the aim of this study was to determine reliable immunogenic proteins to detect Brucella abortus infection according to time course responses to aid in the appropriate management of this disease. Proteomic identification through two-dimensional electrophoresis (2DE), followed by immunoblotting, revealed 13, 24, and 55 immunodominant B. abortus 544 proteins that were reactive to sera from experimentally infected mice at early (10 days), middle (30 days), and late (60 days) infection periods, respectively. After excluding several spots reactive to sera from Yersinia enterocolitica O:9-infected and noninfected mice, 17 of the 67 immunodominant proteins were identified through MALDI-TOF MS.

2.2 Hepatitis B). Proportion of patients with CD4 cell count <350 cells/μL not on ART. Proportion of patients with CD4 Selleck NVP-BKM120 cell count >350 cells/μL and

an indication to start ART not on ART. To date there have been no published randomized trials that directly assess whether treatment-naïve people with higher CD4 cell counts should initiate ART immediately rather than defer until the CD4 cell count falls to ≤350 cells/μL; while the START trial is addressing this question, results are not expected until 2015. Only one trial [1] has randomized people with a CD4 cell count >350 cells/μL, but this used a comparator arm of delay of initiation of ARVs until the CD4 cell count has fallen below 250 cells/μL, and thus is likely to overestimate the apparent

benefits of immediate treatment compared with starting at <350 cells/μL. There have been a number of observational studies that have attempted to address this issue [2-9], which have produced conflicting findings. Some of these studies have failed to take into account the lead time between an individual's CD4 cell count falling below the threshold for treatment and the date of starting treatment [8]; as this may introduce serious bias into treatment comparisons, these results do not resolve the question whether it is better to start ART at higher CD4 cell counts. Where studies have used methods that take lead time into account, the statistical methods used are novel and different approaches Erastin purchase have been used. The analyses reached substantially different

conclusions on the mortality benefits of early ART initiation in people with a CD4 cell count >350 cells/μL, and particularly in those with CD4 cell count >500 cells/μL. Critically, none of these methods is able fully to adjust for potential confounding, which might well be large in this scenario and could Amobarbital create a bias that is in the same direction in all studies. Thus, we do not believe that the evidence is currently sufficiently strong to recommend a change in guidelines. We recommend patients presenting with an AIDS-defining infection, or with a serious bacterial infection and a CD4 cell count <200 cells/μL, start ART within 2 weeks of initiation of specific antimicrobial chemotherapy (1B). Proportion of patients presenting with an AIDS-defining infection or with a serious bacterial infection and a CD4 cell count <200 cells/μL started on ART within 2 weeks of initiation of specific antimicrobial chemotherapy. This recommendation is largely based on the ACTG 5164 study that demonstrated fewer AIDS progressions/deaths and improved cost-effectiveness when ART was commenced within 14 days (median 12 days; IQR 9–13 days) compared with after completion of treatment for the acute infection (median 45 days; IQR 41–55 days) [1, 2].

Renal toxicity was defined as toxicity directly associated with the intake of Celecoxib or non-selective NSAIDs, including acute tubular necrosis, acute tubulointerstitial nephritis, glomerulonephritis, renal papillary necrosis, chronic renal failure or salt and water retention. Comparisons were done between the Celecoxib users and non-selective NSAID users within

the main groups, as well as within the sub-groups as mentioned above, in relation to the demographic parameters and toxicities. Chi-square test was used to locate any significant differences between the groups. A total of 5850 patients’ charts were reviewed, of which 3121 patients had taken non-selective NSAIDs or Celecoxib continuously, at least for 3 months. From this group, 1881 patients were this website being followed up in the Department of Clinical Immunology and Rheumatology. Based on the exclusion criteria, 494 patients

were excluded and finally 1387 patients’ charts were included in the study. The number of patients within each sub-group, with their demographic data and diagnostic categories, are given in Table 1. There was a female preponderance in all the groups, as expected in systemic autoimmune connective tissue diseases. Age group and duration of disease were comparable in all the groups. Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) patients constituted more than half the number in all groups. This was followed by spondyloarthritis, psoriatic arthritis, other connective tissue disorders, osteoarthritis and crystal arthritis. No thrombo-embolic event was recorded www.selleckchem.com/products/Lapatinib-Ditosylate.html in any of the included patients in the adverse effect profile (Table 2). Major side effects documented were new onset hypertension, GI toxicities leading to discontinuation of the medication and renal failure. Minor side effects included edema and headache. The Celecoxib group (Group I) had significantly higher incidence of new onset hypertension (Table 3) as compared to the non-selective NSAID group (Group II) (P = 0.04).

This difference was not seen when continuous Celecoxib users were compared with those Celecoxib users who switched over to non-selective NSAIDs (Groups Ia and Ib) (P = 0.993). There was no difference between those who used Celecoxib continuously (Group Ia) and those patients who switched over to non-selective NSAIDs after a minimum PLEK2 of 3 months use of Celecoxib (Group Ib) in terms of any side effects (P = 0.553). Non-selective NSAID users (Group II), on the other hand, had significantly higher GI toxicity when compared to all Celecoxib users (Group I) (P = 0.001) and those who continued only on Celecoxib throughout the study period (Group Ia) (P < 0.001). 32/915 (3.49%) vs. 19/472 (4.02%) P = 0.6 28/915 (3.06%) vs. 6/472 (1.27%) P = 0.04 3/915 (0.327%) vs. 12/472 (2.54%) P = 0.001 1/915 (0.109%) vs. 1/472 (0.21%) P = 1.00 25/751 (3.32%) vs. 19/472 (4/02%) P = 0.03 23/751 (3.

As HIV infections spread globally, local epidemics in different geographical areas and risk groups

emerged, which were dominated by a single subtype or CRF [1, 2]. As more viral mixing has occurred a plethora of untypable and unique recombinants have emerged, confusing the picture further [3]. There are a number of techniques for identifying subtype but the gold standard is viral genome sequencing. In clinical practice, the subtype is usually supplied as a by-product of a genotypic test for resistance. However, this should be interpreted with caution because the pol. gene only reflects the genetic composition of a small region of the viral genome. Furthermore, different algorithms using the same sequence data can produce discrepant Veliparib manufacturer results. At present the REGA HIV-1 subtyping tool [4] is generally regarded as the http://www.selleckchem.com/products/MK-1775.html gold standard for web-based systems. Unless superinfection occurs, the viral subtype will not change during the course of disease. Epidemiologically, there is interest in viral subtypes as they provide information on the dynamics of the

epidemic at national and international levels. Currently, subtype does not provide much guidance for individual patient management. There are, however, a number of issues surrounding subtype that have attracted significant attention Pregnenolone [1, 2]. There is limited evidence that some subtypes cause more aggressive disease than others, with faster disease progression [5-8]. Anecdotal evidence of greater transmissibility of some subtypes has not been substantiated [9]. Subtype-related sequence variability can affect the performance of viral load and genotypic and phenotypic drug resistance and tropism assays. Antiretroviral drugs were designed for, tested on and predominantly used on infections with subtype B, which has been historically the

dominant virus in the USA and Europe. There was concern that some subtypes may be inherently less responsive to certain therapies [10, 11]. However, there is now clear evidence that the excellent virological and immunological outcomes achieved with highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) do not differ among the predominant subtypes [12]. Although certain resistance mutations are more common in some subtypes than others, major mutations conferring resistance in subtype B also confer resistance in prevalent non-B subtypes and vice versa [13]. Subtle effects cannot be excluded, however, and rarer subtypes may show novel patterns. HIV gains entry into cells that express CD4 and one of two main transmembrane co-receptors, either CCR5 or CXCR4. The preferential use of one of the co-receptors is determined by the V3-loop of the envelope protein gp120.

coli genome. In this study, a novel integrative form recombineering host, E. coli LS-GR, was constructed through the integration of functional recombineering LGK-974 elements including λ Red genes, recA, araC and aacC1 into the E. coli DH10B genome. LS-GR shows high recombination efficiency for medium copy number vector and single copy number BAC vector modifications.

The results indicate that LS-GR could be used as a general recombineering host strain. λ Red recombineering (recombination-mediated genetic engineering) is an in vivo DNA cloning and engineering technique used primarily in Escherichia coli (Murphy, 1998; Zhang et al., 1998; Yu et al., 2000; Court et al., 2002; Sharan et al., 2009). The recombinases catalyzing the recombination between homologous DNA fragments are encoded by the λ bacteriophage red operon, where the exo (redα) gene Vincristine solubility dmso encodes a 5′3′ exonuclease, creating a single-stranded protruding overhang of DNA; the bet (redβ) gene encodes a single-stranded DNA-binding protein that promotes the annealing of two cDNA molecules;

and the gam (redγ) gene encodes the Gam protein that protects the incoming (modifying) DNA from being degraded by host endonucleases, RecBCD and SbcCD (Murphy, 1991). The length of the homologous region used for homologous recombination can be as short as 35–50 bp (Poteete, 2001; Court et al., 2002), which can be easily introduced through PCR primer synthesis, thus considerably facilitating the experimental process. λ Red recombineering is also an efficient

gene-inactivation strategy to study the gene function, minimize the genome and create pathogen vaccines (Datsenko & Wanner, 2000; Posfai et al., 2006; Ranallo et al., 2006; van Kessel et al., 2008; Gerlach et al., 2009; Katashkina et al., 2009). Three recombineering systems differentiated by the existence status of λ Red genes are 3-mercaptopyruvate sulfurtransferase available in E. coli. The first is the plasmid-based system, with pKD46 (Datsenko & Wanner, 2000) and pSC101-BAD-gbaA (Wang et al., 2006) the most often used plasmids. λ Red genes in the plasmids are cloned under promoter pBAD, which is tightly regulated by the l-arabinose-induced expression of transcriptional activator AraC (Guzman et al., 1995). Both plasmids harbor the temperature-sensitive pSC101 replicon, which should be maintained at 30 °C. DY380 (Yu et al., 2000; Lee et al., 2001) is the strain normally used in the prophage-based system; it was constructed by integrating the λ prophage obtained by deleting some unnecessary genes of λ phage into the E. coli DH10B chromosome. The λ Red genes in DY380 are under the control of the temperature-sensitive pL promoter, which is blocked by the CI857 repressor at 32 °C.

gov, number NCT01232205).

Results:  There were 110 women enrolled in the study, randomly assigned to the supplementation (n = 52) and control group (n = 58). The overall rate of pre-eclampsia was 8.7% (nine subjects). There were significant differences (P = 0.034) between the supplementation and control group in the incidence of pre-eclampsia (2.0% [one case] and 14.5% [eight cases], respectively) and mRNA level of superoxide-dismutase, heme oxygenase-1, vascular endothelial growth factor receptor-1, endoglin and placental growth factor after supplementation. Conclusion:  Supplementation Fulvestrant of women with low antioxidant status with micronutrients containing antioxidants during early gestation might reduce the risk of pre-eclampsia. “
“Background:  Environmental pollution with radioiodine (iodine-131, 131I) occurred after an accident at the Fukushima nuclear power plant (FNP) on March 11, 2011, in Japan. Whether environmental pollution with 131I can contaminate human breast milk has not been documented. Methods:  The 131I content was determined in 126 breast milk samples from 119 volunteer lactating women residing within 250 km of the FNP, between April 24 and May 31, 2011. The degree of environmental

pollution was determined based on the data released by the Japanese government. Results:  An 131I content of 210 Bq/kg check details in the tap water in Tokyo, which is located 230 km south of the FNP, on March 22 and of 3500 Bq/kg in spinach sampled in a city located 140 km southwest of the FNP on March 19 decreased

over time to <21 Bq/kg on March 27 and 12 Bq/kg on April 26, respectively. Carnitine palmitoyltransferase II Seven of the 23 women who were tested in April secreted a detectable level of 131I in their breast milk. The concentrations of 131I in the breast milk of the seven women were 2.3 Bq/kg (on April 24), and 2.2, 2.3, 2.3, 3.0, 3.5 and 8.0 (on April 25); the concentrations of 131I in the tap water available for these seven women at the same time were estimated to be <1.3 Bq/kg. None of the remaining 96 women tested in May exhibited a detectable concentration of 131I in their breast milk samples. Conclusions:  The contamination of breast milk with 131I can occur even when only mild environmental 131I pollution is present. On March 11, 2011, an earthquake (magnitude, 9.0) triggered a large tsunami more than 16.0 m high, which then hit the Fukushima nuclear power plant (FNP) in Japan (Fig. 1). Subsequently, the FNP explosively dispersed a massive radioactive plume on the morning of March 15, 2011. The radioactive cloud was carried by the wind, inducing widespread pollution with 131I and other radioactive species. Stable iodine ingested during the consumption of daily meals is secreted in breast milk.

, 2009). Unexpectedly, it was found that VEGF is a

trophic factor for motor neurons in vitro (Van Den Bosch et al., 2004), suggesting that this factor acts directly on neural cells. Moreover, VEGF-B, which is another member of the VEGF family but which has no angiogenic activity, has similar effects in mutant SOD1 models (Poesen et al., 2008). Interestingly, VEGF protects motor neurons from excitotoxic motor neuron death by upregulating the GluR2 subunit (see below) both in vivo and in vitro (Bogaert et al., 2010), possibly through the Akt pathway (Dewil et al., 2007b). This links the activity of this neurovascular factor to excitotoxicity. In conclusion, selleck chemicals llc a vascular mechanism is not necessary but may contribute to the mode of action of VEGF. Whether administration of VEGF to human ALS patients is of therapeutic interest is currently under investigation. Of interest is that missense mutations in the hypoxia-sensitive factor angiogenin have been identified in familial and sporadic ALS, albeit in a handful of patients (Greenway et al., 2006). Angiogenin is a member of the ribonuclease A (RNase) superfamily. It protects motor neurons from hypoxic death in vitro (Subramanian

et al., 2008; Sebastia et al., 2009) and administration of angiogenin to mutant SOD1 mice increased their life span (Kieran et al., 2008). The mutations identified affect the protective effect of angiogenin but it is unknown whether this loss-of-function is of relevance to the in vivo effect in motor neuron degeneration. These findings APO866 cost suggest that a (genetic) susceptibility of motor neurons to hypoxia may be a contributing RVX-208 factor in sporadic ALS, even independent of a vascular context. The question then arises whether hypoxia is a hazard the normal nervous system has to deal with, or whether an environmental factor contributing to sporadic ALS has a hypoxic

element to it. Glutamate released from the presynaptic neuron is the main excitatory neurotransmitter in the central nervous system and plays a very important role in normal brain function. Glutamate stimulates ionotropic glutamate receptors on the postsynaptic neuron, a process resulting in the influx of sodium and calcium. Under pathological conditions, an increase in the synaptic glutamate levels and/or an increased sensitivity of the postsynaptic neuron to this glutamatergic stimulation can result in neuronal death, a phenomenon called excitotoxicity. Although overstimulation of N-methyl-d-aspartic acid (NMDA) receptors is classically involved in this process, motor neurons seem to be more sensitive to the overstimulation of the α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazole propionic acid (AMPA) type of glutamate receptors (Van Den Bosch et al., 2006). There is overwhelming evidence for a role of glutamate-induced excitotoxicity in ALS mediated by the overstimulation of the AMPA-type of glutamate receptors (Van Den Bosch et al., 2006).