These results suggest that production of (p)ppGpp is not a requirement for AThTP synthesis, and that we are dealing with a phenomenon that is unrelated to the stringent response. Table 2 Effect of various carbon sources on AThTP production by different E. coli strains.   AThTP (pmol/mg of protein) MG1655   Control 62 ± 6 D-Glucose SAHA clinical trial (10 mM) 11 ± 2 L-Lactate (10 mM) 26 ± 8 Pyruvate (10 mM) < 2 RelA -   Control 56 ± 12 D-glucose < 2 SpoT -   Control 80 ± 6 D-Glucose 10 ± 3 CF5802   Control 62 ± 4 D-Glucose (10 mM) <

2 CV2   Control 120 ± 11 D-glucose < 2 L-lactate < 2 an. d., not determined The bacteria (A600 > 1) were incubated for 20 min at 37°C in minimal M9 medium containing substrates at the concentrations indicated. Mean ± SD for 3 – 9 experiments. The BL21 strain is particular in the sense that it lacks Lon protease, a protein important in the physiological response of bacteria to amino acid starvation [15]. During amino acid starvation, E. coli cells accumulate inorganic polyphosphate (poly-P) that activate Lon and redirect their activity towards free ribosomal proteins [16]. Whilst the survival rate of wild-type

and Lon-deficient E. coli is the same selleckchem under aerobic conditions, Lon-deficient cells are more sensitive to anaerobic conditions [7]. The degradation of these proteins releases amino acids that can be used to make enzymes required for amino acid metabolism [17]. In our experiments, the wild-type MG1655 strain largely behaved in the same way as the BL21 strain in accumulating AThTP in response to carbon starvation (Table 2). Furthermore, the CF5802 (MG1655 Δppk1-ppx) strain, deficient in polyphosphate kinase and exopolyphosphatase, and

therefore unable to synthesize polyphosphate, also produced normal levels of AThTP during carbon starvation (Table 2). AThTP synthesis is triggered by metabolic inhibition We studied the effects of two metabolic inhibitors, iodoacetate and KCN in the presence of either D-glucose or L-lactate (Figure 3). With iodoacetate, an inhibitor GNA12 of the glycolytic enzyme glyceraldehyde phosphate dehydrogenase [18], AThTP accumulated in the presence of glucose, but much less in the presence of lactate. However, the reverse was observed with KCN, an inhibitor of the respiratory chain. This is confirmed by data illustrated in Figure 4. In the presence of glucose, KCN induced a significant increase in AThTP levels; while in the presence of lactate, AThTP was strongly increased in the presence of KCN and during anoxia. This may be AZD8931 molecular weight explained if, in the presence of glucose, glycolytic ATP can still be produced. These results demonstrate that, while AThTP accumulation can be induced by carbon starvation, it is also observed in the presence of a carbon source if the metabolization of the substrate is blocked.