In particular, studies using noninflammatory, cellular antigens showed that early primary CD8+ T-cell responses can in fact be T-cell help-independent—even in these OTX015 mw noninflammatory conditions. In the absence of

T-cell help during the first 3–4 days, functional effector CD8+ T cells were generated with respect to their ability to produce IFN-γ as well as IL-2, but they were unable to mount productive recall responses [[10, 56]]. Thus, although potent primary CD8+ T-cell responses can be induced in the absence of T-cell help in many viral or bacterial infections, it became clear the generation of proliferation-competent memory CD8+ T cells as well as their long-term maintenance is in many experimental systems dependent on CD4+ T-cell help (Table 2 and 3) [[28, 54, 56]]. Although the phenomenon of poor secondary expansion of “helpless” CD8+ T cells held true for many in vivo experimental systems [[34]], there

are also reports demonstrating that “helpless” CD8+ T cells are not necessarily impaired in their recall proliferation potential [[26, 30, 57]]. The intrinsic molecular program that instructs the recall proliferation defect of unhelped memory CD8+ T cells remains incompletely understood and several mechanistic pathways have been proposed. It was shown that elevated levels of T-bet in “helpless” LCMV-specific CD8+ T cells repress the transcription of IL-7Rα and thereby drive the differentiation of effector memory CD8+ T cells at the expense Selleck Apoptosis Compound Library of central memory CD8+ T cells. Selleckchem Obeticholic Acid Interestingly, deletion of T-bet restores the pool of central memory CD8+ T cells as well as their functional properties [[58]]. In addition, there is evidence that increased levels of TRAIL mRNA found in “helpless” memory CD8+ T cells account for their defective secondary

expansion [[59]]. This finding was challenged by other studies showing that TRAIL deficiency is insufficient to overcome the defective functionality of “helpless” memory CD8+ T cells [[60, 61]], indicating that increased TRAIL expression in “helpless” CD8+ T cells does not fully account for their impaired phenotype and function. As there is no consensus on a strict T-cell help-dependent programming of proliferation-competent memory CD8+ T cells, it is likely that inherent differences in the experimental models account for the different outcomes. Thus, it is important to assess the T-cell help-dependence of (memory) CD8+ T-cell responses and the underlying mechanisms closely linked to the particular experimental system used. Based on the observation that T-cell help is critical for the functionality of memory CD8+ T cells, which are generated in response to many infections or immunizations, the exact timing that is involved in delivering help to CD8+ T cells is still controversial. Currently, there are two different models (programming versus maintenance) discussed.