Environmental education on ecosystem functioning and ecology, the impacts of human activity and how to mitigate the negative impacts

of these activities, and the rationale behind MPAs should be done prior to MPA consultations if this knowledge is not already present [119]. Often there is Trichostatin A a lack of local understanding of the definition and implications of MPAs [134]; however, it is also important not to create overzealous expectations for MPA outcomes as these can be detrimental to later support [135]. The linking of communities with other communities and outside organizations at this stage allows for the sharing of knowledge, experiences, resources, and responsibility and creation of social networks and alliances in support of the MPA [136]. Two other central themes emerging from the literature are the importance of broader participation and stakeholder engagement and

the incorporation of social, economic, environmental, and institutional contextual factors into MPA design, management, and local development. As Charles and Wilson [11] urge, the consultation of relevant stakeholders should be done at all stages of MPA design, implementation, and in ongoing management: “involvement builds the confidence of people to manage their own resources and encourages results that are long lasting” [94]. Although this is well recognized in MPA design practice, it is rare that stakeholders are involved at the earliest stages of establishment of MPA performance expectations [137] The rationale behind participation is that it

encourages information exchange, encourages collaboration, Adriamycin chemical structure builds confidence and empowerment in community groups, increases management effectiveness, and facilitates the development of mutually acceptable solutions [11], [101], [116] and [138]. Early and meaningful CYTH4 participation may also reduce conflict among user groups and thus long term enforcement costs [139] and [140]. One important rationale for initial participation is the development of clear objectives for the MPA [11] and [140]. Murray [141] suggests that full participation is required to identify and address the full range of divergent and overlapping objectives in MPA creation [142], which may be able to be reconciled through the creation of multiple use MPAs [24]. In order for participation to be effective, there is a need to recognize the heterogeneity of communities and stakeholder groups, recognize the potential impacts of institutions and entitlements on the ability of certain groups to participate, consider potential equity issues and asymmetries, and incorporate marginalized groups [121]. Effective mechanisms for participation may also lead to a more complete understanding and incorporation of the social, economic, cultural, political, and environmental context within which the MPA is going to operate.