Complications from Gc infections are frequent, debilitating, and disproportionately affect women. selleck products Untreated cervical infections commonly progress to the upper reproductive tract, which contributes to pelvic inflammatory disease (PID), infertility, life-threatening ectopic pregnancy, and chronic pain. Infertility rates following PID are high, at >10% following a single episode and >50% following three or more episodes [1]. In men 10–30% of untreated urethritis cases may progress to epididymitis, a common cause of male infertility in some

regions [2]. During pregnancy, Gc causes chorioamnionitis complicated by septic abortion in up to 13% of women, preterm delivery in 23% of women, and premature rupture of membranes in 29% of women [3]. Neonatal conjunctival infections are destructive, leading to corneal scarring and blindness. Gonorrhea also dramatically increases the acquisition and transmission of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) [4]. An estimated 106 million Gc infections occur annually, worldwide [5]. Diagnostic capabilities and surveillance systems vary between nations, and thus, infection is greatly underreported and prevalence is often highest among economically or socially disadvantaged populations. Microbiologic culture is diagnostic, but syndromic management alone is

standard for many regions of the world. Rapid DNA-based tests have improved sensitivity, especially for asymptomatic disease, but are not available in all countries. In all situations, treatment find more is empiric at the initial point of care to eliminate further transmission. Antimicrobial resistance patterns guide treatment recommendations, the goal of which is to effectively treat ≥95% of infections at first presentation. Antibiotic resistance is widespread and has developed rapidly with each successive treatment regimen. Alarmingly, with the advent of resistance to extended-spectrum Phosphatidylinositol diacylglycerol-lyase cephalosporins, we have now reached the point where untreatable disease can be anticipated in the

near future [6]. Although rapid effective treatment of gonorrhea decreases long-term sequelae and can eliminate the effect on HIV transmission [7], expansion of multi-drug resistant Gc is a global threat to public health and amplifies the urgent need for novel prevention methods. Development of an effective gonorrhea vaccine is likely to have significant benefits given the impact of gonorrhea on human health. Ebrahim et al. estimated 1326 disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) are attributable to 321,300 Gc infections. Applied to WHO global estimates of new Gc infections, this translates to 440,000 DALYs per year [8] and [9]. The benefits of effective treatment to women also have been estimated: treatment of 100 women with gonorrhea, of which 25% are pregnant, would prevent 25 cases of PID, one ectopic pregnancy, 6 cases of infertility, and 7 cases of neonatal ophthalmia.