Aylward et al. (2014) showed a strong correlation between DMA and organic arsenic species in NHANES data, suggesting co-exposure or even metabolism of the organic species to DMA. Hence, it seems DMA when used as a biomarker of inorganic arsenic exposure may

overestimate the actual exposure. Thus, a more focused chemical-specific analysis for inorganic arsenic including a detailed examination of exposure data may be required to determine whether current exposures are of concern. The HQ values did not exceed 1 at the geometric mean for any of the persistent chemicals. However, calculated HQ values for cadmium exceed 1 at the 95th percentile of the smoking and non-smoking population aged 40–59 and 60–79 years. In the case of cadmium with a long biological half-life of 6–38 years in the kidney, concentrations at the 95th percentile are considered representative of Ferroptosis inhibitor relatively long-term exposures at elevated levels (Hays et al., 2008b). Based upon previous studies, urinary cadmium levels were anticipated to be higher in smokers than non-smokers (NTP, 2011 and Riederer et al., 2012). However, cadmium HQ values approached 1 at the 95th percentile even in non-smokers of older age groups.

Urinary cadmium levels are considered to be a highly relevant biomarker for the critical dose metric of renal cortex cadmium concentrations (Hays et al., 2008; Järup et al., 1998Järup et al., 1998). For these reasons, OSI-744 datasheet HQ values approaching or exceeding 1 for cadmium provide an indication that exposure levels may be exceeding exposure guidance values, at least for a portion of the population. Thus, a more focused chemical-specific analysis for cadmium including a detailed examination of exposure data may be required to determine whether current exposures are of concern. Calculated HQ values using BEs do not represent

medical diagnostic criteria and cannot be used to evaluate the likelihood of an adverse Chorioepithelioma health effect in an individual or among a population. HQ values above 1 indicate exposures at or above the current exposure guidance values which may lessen the safety margin, but do not necessarily result in any significant adverse health effects. Therefore, similar to when other exposure guidance values are exceeded; chemical-specific HQ values above 1 should result in further investigation and can be used to determine priorities for further efforts when multiple contaminants are evaluated. For a single substance, there may exist multiple BE values each derived based upon exposure guidance values from different national and international agencies. The assumption in this paper is that regulatory exposure guidance values are reasonable and protective.