Additional research has focused on the antimicrobial activity of PGRE in combination with metal salts and vitamin C (McCarrell et al., 2008; Gould et al., 2009). However,

the mechanism of action of the antimicrobial effect of PGRE has not been established; nor, to our knowledge, have the effects of PMs on UPEC gene expression and phenotype been studied. A preliminary fractionation of PGRE was achieved using ultrafiltration membranes with different NMWLs. The maximum normalized luminescence for CFT073 PfliC-lux, Doramapimod in vitro which was observed at 15 min after PGRE addition, was plotted vs. different fractions of the PGRE and may be seen in Fig. 5a. The results obtained show that, relative to the control, a spike of PGRE reduces the normalized luminescence in a molecular weight-dependent manner. These results show that the luminescence reduction was higher for NMWL1000 than the NMWL3000 suggesting that the active compound(s) in PGRE potentially have a molecular weight between 1000 and 3000 kDa. As illustrated in

Fig. 5b, the growth of UPEC in presence of PGRE and these two fractions of PGRE (NMWL1000 and 3000) confirmed that these ICG-001 purchase fractions have no toxic effect on bacterial growth. These results highlight that further investigation into the active ingredients of PMs and their mode of action is required. Here, we describe how downregulation of the flagellin gene fliC results from growth or exposure to various PMs including rind extract, purified tannins, or PGP. We also demonstrate, using electron microscopy and Western blot analysis, that flagellar synthesis is precluded as a result of the lower level of fliC transcription. Additionally,

we show that exposure to PMs results in hindered swimming and swarming motility. It has been reported that flagellum-mediated motility contributes to the movement of infection within the host and that the flagella Florfenicol of UPEC strain CFT073 are expressed at a time and location that coincides with the ascension of UPEC from the bladder to the kidneys (Wright et al., 2005; Lane et al., 2007a, b; Schwan, 2008). Therefore, we speculate that consumption of PMs might result in UTI prevention given the decrease in fliC expression. Further studies investigating whether fliC is downregulated by PMs in vivo are required to test this hypothesis. The authors acknowledge the financial support of the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC), the Fonds québécois de la recherche sur la nature et les technologies (FQRNT), and the Canada Research Chairs Program. We thank H. Mobley (University of Michigan) for the PfliC-lux plasmid and the ∆fliC strain and N. Seeram (University of Rhode Island) for the PG. “
“Staphylococcus aureus represents the most prevalent cause of food-borne intoxications worldwide.