41-45 In some, but not all,46 experimental paradigms, estradiol has been observed

to inhibit serotonin reuptake transporter (SERT) mRNA47 and decrease activity at serotonin (5-hydroxytryptaminc) 5-HT1A receptors,48,49 consistent with some reported actions of antidepressants on serotonergic system function. Moreover, in one study estradiol and testosterone facilitated imipramine-induced downregulation of 5-HT2 receptors in the rat frontal cortex.50 In addition to classic neurotransmitter systems, several candidate neural signaling systems have been identified as potential mediators of the therapeutic actions of antidepressants and electroconvulsive therapy (EXT) (eg, cyclic adenosine monophosphate [cAMP] response Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical element-binding [CREB] protein and brain-derived neurotrophic factor [BDNF])51-54 based on observations that these systems are modulated by a range of therapies effective in depression (eg, serotonergic

and noradrenergic agents and ECT) and exhibit a pattern of change consistent with the Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical latency to therapeutic efficacy for most antidepressants.55 For example, antidepressants increase the expression and activity of CREB in certain brain regions Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical (eg, hippocampus)56 and regulate (in a brain region-specific manner) activity of genes with a cAMP response element.55 Genes for BDNF and its receptor trkB have been proposed as potential targets for antidepressantrelated changes in CREB activity.55,57 Similarly, estradiol has been reported Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical to influence many of these same neuroregulatory processes. Specifically, ovariectomy has been reported to decrease, and estradiol increase, BDNF levels in the forebrain and

hippocampus.58,59 Estrogen also increases CREB activity60,61 and trkA62 in the rat brain. In contrast, an Roxadustat datasheet estradiol-induced decrease in BDNF has been Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical reported to mediate estradiol’s regulation of dendritic spine formation in hippocampal neurons.63 Thus, the therapeutic potential of gonadal steroids in depression is not only suggested by their widespread actions on neurotransmitter systems, but also by certain neuroregulatory actions shared by both estrogen and traditional therapies for depression (ie, antidepressants, ECT). Gonadal steroids in the treatment of mood disorders Reproductive endocrine-related mood disorders Reproductive endocrine-related mood disorders refer to depressive-like disorders in which the appearance of mood disturbances occurs in temporal association with a change in reproductive function, and includes Mephenoxalone mood disorders occurring in association with the luteal phase of the menstrual cycle, the postpartum, and the perimenopause. Given the apparent association between the onset of mood disturbance and the change in reproductive function, these conditions have been suggested to develop secondary to some abnormality in ovarian hormone secretion, and reproductive therapies have been used in an attempt to correct the presumed endocrine anomaly.