8, 9 and 10 These relationships have been described in detail in a review elsewhere.11 The current discussion will focus primarily on the epigenetic mechanisms involved in developmental human β-type globin gene silencing (and hence fetal hemoglobin [HbF] silencing) and the preclinical and potential clinical translational avenues for overcoming this silencing in context of the treatment of inherited β-globin gene disorders. In all vertebrates that have been

studied, a switch from embryonic, or primitive, to definitive hemoglobin production occurs in erythroid cells during development. In humans and old world buy AZD0530 primates, as well as certain ruminants, an intermediate HbF predominates during mid to late gestational stages and persists at a low level postpartum in definitive erythroid cells after

adult hemoglobin predominates (Table I). The details of this switch have been reviewed extensively.12 and 13 As with much of human biology, the ability to identify important regulatory mechanisms that are physiologically relevant is a major challenge requiring robust preclinical models for understanding ɣ-globin gene silencing in adults and successfully targeting those mechanisms therapeutically. Because of a high degree of evolutionary conservation of gene regulatory mechanisms in erythroid cells, transgenic mice bearing a yeast artificial chromosome (YAC) containing an intact human β-globin gene locus (β-globin YAC) selleck chemical have provided a valuable model system for studying developmental globin Y-27632 gene regulation. The transgenic mouse model also allows for testing the effects of modulating epigenetic processes in the context of whole animal physiology. At the same time, the β-globin YAC mouse model is limited by the fact that the mouse lacks

a true analog of the human fetal erythroid compartment, such that the transgenic human ɣ-globin gene is regulated like the murine embryonic β-type globin genes, which are repressed several orders of magnitude more than the human ɣ-globin gene in adult humans14 (Table 1). Cultured primary human erythroid cells derived from CD34+ progenitors induced to erythroid differentiation provide another powerful model for studying human ɣ-globin gene silencing.15 and 16 The limitations of cultured primary erythroid cells include their limited life span, and the fact that achieving terminal erythroid differentiation while maintaining cell viability is often challenging. The primate baboon model also has been quite useful given that the developmental β-type globin gene repertoire of the baboon is very similar to humans, including an HbF.17 Other vertebrate models and cultured cell systems have provided important early insights into epigenetic control of globin gene silencing, but this discussion of preclinical translational studies is directed primarily at the aforementioned models.